Late Hulran language

Late Hulran was the final stage during the independent evolution of the Hulran language. Spoken in the the Kingdom of Hulra during the end of its lifespan, it represented the last stage of the language that was still overwhelmingly free of foreign influences, ultimately the last Human language overwhelmingly free of external influences that post-date the evolution from Proto-Elven to Proto-Human.

After the fall of Hulra in 274, the language came under Etrandish influence, which meant that thousands of words from Middle Etrandish and Eccelestial High Elven (and Middle High Elven indirectly via Middle Etrandish) entered the Hulran/Etrancoasti language, accelerating the shift from Late Hulran to Current Etrancoasti.

Consonants

 * Phonemic distinction between voiceless /f θ/ and voiced fricatives /v ð/ emerges
 * The voiced fricatives /v ð ɣ/ become closer to approximants in articulation
 * Voiced stops and fricatives got devoiced word-finally
 * Second Rhotacism: /z/ and /ʑ/ to /r/
 * Voicing distinction between stops is replaced with aspiration distinction
 * Voiceless stops /p t t͡ɕ k kʷ/ become aspirated /pʰ tʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ kʷʰ/ (except in the syllable coda, where they became unreleased)
 * Formerly voiced stops /b d d͡ʑ/ became unaspirated /p t t͡ʃ/, realized as voiceless [p t t͡ʃ] word-initially, voiced [b d d͡ʒ] medially.
 * The alveolo-palatal /tɕ dʑ ɕ/ became palato-alveolar [t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ ʃ]
 * Geminated consonants lost their gemination word-finally

Vowels

 * /æ æː/ became /e ɛː/
 * /ɒ ɒː/ became /o ɔː/
 * The short /u/ became /o/, /ui̯/ became /oi̯/
 * Length distinction was replaced by tenseness distinction for close vowels:
 * the short /i y/ became laxed /ɪ ʏ/
 * The long /iː yː/ became tense /i y/, realized as long [iː yː] in open syllables (except word-finally), short otherwise.
 * The lowering diphthongs /ie̯ uo̯/ became centralizing /iə̯ uə̯/

Consonants

 * The unaspirated /k~g/ and /kʷ~gʷ/ appeared only in loanwords.

Monophthongs

 * The main distinction between the tense /i y/ and the lax /ɪ ʏ/ was vowel quality, not length
 * The tense vowels /i y/ were pronounced as long [iː yː] in open syllables (except word-finally), short [i y] otherwise.
 * Lax vowels never occurred word-finally. Word-final close vowels were always tense.
 * The vowels /ʊ/ and /u/ were only found in foreign words, and weren't distinguished from /o/ and /y/ in writing.
 * Most likely, they also were pronounced as such. /ʊ/ as [o̞], /u/ as [y~yː].
 * The long vowel /eː/ and the diphthong /ei̯/ were only distinct in careful and formal speech. It was up to speaker preference whether to use the long vowel or the diphthong.
 * The long vowel /oː/ and the diphthong /ou̯/ were only distinct in careful and formal speech. It was up to speaker preference whether to use the long vowel or the diphthong.

Diphthongs

 * The long vowel /eː/ and the diphthong /ei̯/ were only distinct in careful and formal speech. It was up to speaker preference whether to use the long vowel or the diphthong.
 * The long vowel /oː/ and the diphthong /ou̯/ were only distinct in careful and formal speech. It was up to speaker preference whether to use the long vowel or the diphthong.

Grammar
Late Hulran was a subject-verb-object and synthetic language.

Nouns
The various cases had the following functions:
 * The nominative case usually marks the subject of the sentence.
 * The genitive case marks ownership. For example, "Hoelrán Réktr" means "(the) Kingdom of Hulra".
 * The dative case usualy marks indirect objects, similar to the use of English "to" and "for"
 * the accusative case usually marks direct objects, ones that are being directly targeted.

Verbs

 * The infinitive is marked by -(i)ri, just like Present Simple.
 * Adding an extra -r at the end turns the verb perfect. An example:
 * "seffiri" means "to make someone/something beautiful". It is in Present Simple.
 * "seffeg" is the same verb, but in Future Simple instead. For example, "you will make her beautiful".
 * "seffegr" is the same verb, but in Future Perfect instead. For example, "you will have made her beautiful".

Adjectives
Adjectives have three forms in Late Hulran:
 * Normal adjective: -en
 * Comparitive adjective: -enri
 * Superlative adjective: -aneg

Adverbs
Adverbs have three forms in Late Hulran:
 * Normal adverb: -atn
 * Comparitive adverb: -artn
 * Superlative adverb: -ang

Inclusive or vs Exclusive or
Late Hulran - and by extension, all of its descendant languages - distinguish between the "inclusive or" and the "exclusive or". The earlier means, "either A, B, or both of them", while the latter means "either A or B, but not both of them - never both of them".
 * The word for the inclusive or is
 * The word for the exclusive or is

Numbers from 0 to 16

 * 0: mar
 * 1: an
 * 2: fán
 * 3: wen
 * 4: rei
 * 5: sei
 * 6: dei
 * 7: gei
 * 8: step
 * 9: roun
 * 10: roufán
 * 11: rouwen
 * 12: rourei
 * 13: rauthei
 * 14: roudei
 * 15: rougei
 * 16: roustep

Numerical postfixes

 * 16 power 1: -(a)p
 * Denotes the first power of 16. For example, "anp-an" means $$((16^1) * 1)+((16^0)*1)$$, or 0x11, or simply 17 in decimal.
 * Logic would suggest the number 16 - 0x10 in hexadecimal - be said as "anp" - but it is actually "roustep". This is a holdover from Proto-Elven.
 * 16 power 2: -(i)p
 * Denotes the second power of 16. For example, "enp-an" means $$((16^2) * 1)+((16^0)*1)$$, or 0x101, or simply 257 in decimal.
 * When used as a noun - especially plural, and especially in casual usage - the word can also be used as an equivalent of "hundreds".
 * 16 power 3: -kwat
 * Denotes the third power of 16. For example, "ankwat-an" means $$((16^3) * 1)+((16^0)*1)$$, or 0x1001, or simply 4097 in decimal.
 * When used as a noun - especially plural, and especially in casual usage - the word can also be used as an equivalent of "thousands".
 * 16 power 4: -iet
 * Denotes the fourth power of 16. For example, "aniet-an" means $$((16^4) * 1)+((16^0)*1)$$, or 0x10001, or simply 65537 in decimal.
 * 16 power 5: -kwét
 * Denotes the fifth power of 16. For example, "ankwét-an" means $$((16^5) * 1)+((16^0)*1)$$, or 0x100001, or simply 1048577 in decimal.
 * When used as a noun - especially plural, and especially in casual usage - the word can also be used as an equivalent of "millions".
 * negative: -n(i)l
 * Used to postfix a negative number. For example, "an" means 1, while "ennl" means -1.
 * Ordinator: -(i)r
 * Turns a cardinal number into an ordinal number. For example, "an" means "one", while "enr" means "first".
 * Radix point: wir
 * Literally means "full", it separates the integral part of a number from the fractional part. For example, "an wir roustep" means 0x1.F, equivalent to the decimal 1.9375.